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Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of , commonly known as sphagnum moss, also bog moss and quacker moss (although that term is also sometimes used for peat). Accumulations of Sphagnum can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells; plants may hold 16 to 26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on the species.Bold, H. C. 1967. Morphology of Plants. second ed. Harper and Row, New York. p. 225–229. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions.
As Sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger , both raised and . Thus, Sphagnum can influence the composition of such habitats, with some describing Sphagnum as 'habitat manipulators' or 'autogenic ecosystem engineers'. These peat accumulations then provide habitat for a wide array of peatland plants, including sedges and Calcifuge shrubs, as well as orchids and carnivorous plants.Keddy, P. A. (2010). Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 397 pp.
Sphagnum and the peat formed from it do not decay readily because of the natural phenol embedded in the moss's . In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, which produces slower anaerobic decay rather than aerobic microbial action. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up , such as calcium and magnesium, and releasing hydrogen ions.
Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters. Different species of Sphagnum have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, and any one peatland may have a number of different Sphagnum species.
Sphagnum species can be unisexual (male or female, dioecious) or bisexual (male and female gametes produced from the same plant; monoecious); In North America, 80% of Sphagnum species are unisexual.Andrus, Richard. Sphagnum. Flora of North America. 2007
Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by fragmentation, producing much of the living material in sphagnum peatlands.Rydin, Hakan and Jeglum, John K. 2006. Biology of Peatlands. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Swimming sperm fertilize eggs contained in archegonia that remain attached to the female gametophyte. The sporophyte is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, Sphagnum stalks are produced by the maternal gametophyte. Tetrahedral haploid spores are produced in the sporophyte by meiosis, which are then dispersed when the capsule explosively discharges its cap, called an operculum, and shoots the spores some distance. The spores germinate to produce minute , which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards, the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and hyaline cells.Schofield, W. B. 1985. Introduction to Bryology. Macmillan Publ. Co., N.Y. & London
Carpets of living Sphagnum may be attacked by various fungus, and one fungus that is also a mushroom, Sphagnurus paluster, produces conspicuous dead patches. When this fungus and other attack the protonema, Sphagnum is induced to produce nonphotosynthetic gemmae that can survive the fungal attack and months later germinate to produce new protonema and leafy gametophytes.
Human activities like slash-and-burn and cattle grazing are believed to promote the growth and expansion of Sphagnum moss. Oceanic islands such as the Faroe Islands, the Galápagos or the Azores have recorded a significant increase in their Sphagnum populations after human settlement.
The reciprocal monophyly of these sections and two other minor ones ( Rigida and Squarrosa) has been clarified using molecular phylogenetics. All but two species normally identified as Sphagnum reside in one clade; two other species have recently been separated into new families within the Sphagnales reflecting an ancestral relationship with the endemic Ambuchanania and long phylogenetic distance to the rest of Sphagnum. Within main clade of Sphagnum, phylogenetic distance is relatively short, and molecular dating methods suggest nearly all current Sphagnum species are descended from a radiation that occurred just 14 million years ago.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the largest peat areas are in southern Chile and Argentina, part of the vast Magellanic moorland ( circa 44,000 square km; 17,000 sq. mi).Arroyo, M.T.K., P. Mihoc, P. Pliscoff and M. Arroyo-Kalin. (2005). The Magellanic moorland. P. 424–445 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Peat areas are also found in New Zealand and Tasmania. In the Southern Hemisphere, however, peat landscapes may contain many moss species other than Sphagnum. Sphagnum species are also reported from "dripping rocks" in mountainous, subtropical Brazil.
According to an article written in 2013, the U.S. got up to 80% of sphagnum peat moss it uses from Canada. At that time, in Canada, the peat bog mass harvested each year was roughly 1/60th of the peat mass that annually accumulated. About 0.02% of the of Canadian peat bog are used for peat moss mining.Trail, Jesse Vernon. The truth about peat moss. The Ecologist. 25 January 2013. Some efforts are being made to restore peat bogs after peat mining, and some debate exists as to whether the peat bogs can be restored to their premining condition and how long the process takes. "The North American Wetlands Conservation Council estimates that harvested peatlands can be restored to 'ecologically balanced systems' within five to 20 years after peat harvesting." Some wetlands scientists assert that "a managed bog bears little resemblance to a natural one. Like tree farms, these peatlands tend toward monoculture, lacking the biodiversity of an unharvested bog."Priesnitz, Wendy. "Ask Natural Life: Does Peat Moss Have a Place In the Ecological Garden" . Natural Life Magazine. 1 July 2012.
PittMoss, a peat moss alternative made from recycled newspaper, has emerged as a sustainable substitute in growing media. Cellulose Based Soil Medium as a Peat Moss Substitute EPA/SBIR Sponsored (Contract No. 68D60035)(C) 1997 Wabash Vallet Products, Inc. Crown Point, Indiana. Coir has also been touted as a sustainable alternative to peat moss in growing media.Richards, Davi. Coir is sustainable alternative to peat moss in the garden. Oregon State University Extension Service. Another peat moss alternative is manufactured in California from sustainably harvested redwood fiber. Semi-open cell polyurethane materials available in flaked and sheet stock are also finding application as sphagnum replacements with typical usage in green wall and roof garden substrates.
According to a 2024 law harvesting of Sphagnum can only be done with land-management plans approved by Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero. Some environmental organisations expressed regret as the original law project presented in 2018 sought the extablish a definitive ban on the harvest. Along Rubens River in Magallanes Region there are some historically important harvesting fields of peat in Sphagnum peatlands. Sphagnum peatlands in Chile disturbed by peat extraction have been found to host various invasive species plant species including Rumex acetosella, Carex canescens, Holcus lanatus and Hieracium pilosella. Harvesting of peat in Sphagnum mosses or any where else is forbidden in Chile since April 2024.
Harvesting aside, bogs where Sphagnum grows have also come under threat by the development of in cool humid areas such as the Cordillera del Piuchén where the San Pedro Wind Farm was constructed in the 2010s.
Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern Arctic regions as an insulating material.
Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments. They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are Tollund Man, Haraldskær Woman, Clonycavan Man and Lindow Man. Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of the most noteworthy examples being Egtved Girl, Denmark. Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food.Madrigal, Alexis. Bogosphere: The Strangest Things Pulled Out of Peat Bogs. Wired Magazine. 21 August 2009 Up to 2000-year-old containers of butter or lard have been found. Bog Butter Test. New Scientist. 20 March 2004.
Sphagnum moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through World War I. Botanist John William Hotson's paper, "Sphagnum as a surgical dressing", published in Science in 1918, was instrumental in the acceptance of Sphagnum moss use as a medical dressing in place of cotton. Preparations using Sphagnum such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including acne, Dermatophytosis, and Dermatitis. The soap was used by the British Red Cross during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores.
Since it is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants.
Sphagnum moss is used as a substrate in reptile terrariums because it supports humidity and provides a soft base for burrowing or nesting.[11]
Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to chlorine in swimming pool sanitation. Moss Proving An Alternative To Chlorine In Pools. WCCO. 15 August 2008. The moss inhibits the growth of microorganism and reduces the need for chlorine in swimming pools.Hill, Catey. Time to fire the pool boy? Moss helps pools stay clean. Daily News. 29 October 2009.
In Finland, peat mosses have been used to make bread during famines.Engman, Max; D. G. Kirby (1989). Finland: people, nation, state. C. Hurst & Co. p. 45. .
In China, Japan and Korea, long strand dried sphagnum moss is traditionally used as a potting medium for cultivating Vanda falcata orchids. Art of tradition and evolution: Fukiran, 2014. .
(2025). 9789560921901, CESCH. ISBN 9789560921901 The construction of each wind turbine usually implies the removal of vegetation and the alteration of the soil, changing the local hydrology.
Europe
Europe has a long history of the exploitation of peatlands. The Netherlands, for example, once had large areas of peatland, both fen and bog. Between 100 AD and the present, they were drained and converted to agricultural land. The English broadlands have small lakes that originated as peat mines.
More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. Insight into threatened peat bogs. BBC News. The RSPB: Policy A handful of bogs has been preserved through government buyouts of peat-mining interests.Jeffery, Simon. Bogs to be preserved for peat's sake. The Guardian. 27 February 2002. Over longer time scales, however, some parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have seen expansion of bogs, particularly blanket bogs, in response to deforestation and abandonment of agricultural land.
New Zealand
New Zealand has, like other parts of the world, lost large areas of mire. The latest estimates for wetland loss in New Zealand are 90% over 150 years.Peters, M. and Clarkson, B. 2010. Wetland Restoration: A Handbook for New Zealand Freshwater Systems. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, N.Z. (online) In some cases, better care is taken during the harvesting of Sphagnum to ensure enough moss is remaining to allow regrowth. An 8-year cycle is suggested, but some sites require a longer cycle of 11 to 32 years for full recovery of biomass, depending on factors including whether reseeding is done, the light intensity, and the water table.Sphagnum research programme: the ecological effects of commercial harvesting Department of Conservation R. P. Buxton, P. N. Johnson and P. R. Espie. Wellington, N.Z. Department of Conservation, 1996 http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/sfc025.pdf (Retrieved 10 January 2013) This "farming" is based on a sustainable management program approved by New Zealand's Department of Conservation; it ensures the regeneration of the moss, while protecting the wildlife and the environment. Most harvesting in New Zealand swamps is done only using pitchforks without the use of heavy machinery. During transportation, helicopters are commonly employed to transfer the newly harvested moss from the swamp to the nearest road.
Uses
Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a soil conditioner which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing Capillary action and cation exchange capacity – uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying matter underneath.Hood, Gerry (January 1995). "Don't Confuse Sphagnum Moss with Peat Moss". African Violet Magazine, p. 34
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